A Holistic Framework on Information Systems Evaluation with a Case Analysis

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Reference this paper as:

 

Hallikainen P and Chen L (2005) “A Holistic Framework on Information Systems Evaluation with a Case Analysis” The

Electronic Journal Information Systems Evaluation Volume 9 Issue 2, pp 57 - 64, available online at www.ejise.com

A Holistic Framework on Information Systems Evaluation with a Case Analysis

Petri Hallikainen1 and Lena Chen2,

1Information Systems Science, Helsinki School of Economics, Finland

2General Education Center, National University of Arts, Taiwan

petri.hallikainen@hse.fi

lenachen@info.ntua.edu.tw

Abstract: This paper presents a framework for understanding IS evaluation in its broader context. The role of IS

 

 

evaluation is emphasised on integrating the IS development process into business development process. The framework

is applied to analyze a single IS project in details. The results show that sometimes formal IS evaluation might not be

important or necessary, but rather it may be more important, with an informal and flexible evaluation process, to quickly

gain experience of a new kind of business and system to maintain a leading position in the competitive market.

Keywords: information systems projects, IS evaluation, organisational context, holistic framework on IS evaluation

1. Introduction

It has been widely noticed in the literature that information system (IS) evaluation is a very difficult task involving a variety of dimensions (Smithson and Hirschheim, 1998; Irani, 2002; Peffers and Saarinen, 2002) and various stakeholders (McAulay et al., 2002). IS investments often include intangible benefits (Powell, 1992) and the benefits are often realised during a long period of time (Saarinen and Wijnhoven, 1994). Ad hoc practices for IS evaluation are frequently reported (Irani and Love, 2001) and only simple methods, like payback period, are used in evaluation (Lederer and Mendelow, 1993). This is in sharp contrast to management theory suggestions that IS investments should be evaluated using a covering set of criteria. For example, Peffers and Saarinen (2002) stated that evaluation of IT in financial terms may be biased toward the most easily measured benefits and prone to manipulation to justify predetermined investment decisions,

resulting in systematic over or under-investment in IT. Some contingency models for selecting evaluation methods for IS investments have been presented in the literature. At organisational level, contingency factors may include, for example, the industry situation (stable or changing), and the leadership role of the organisation (pioneer or follow) (Farbey et al., 1992). At IS project level, contingency factors may include, for example, project types, project sises, the type of expected benefits (qualitative vs. quantifiable), the stages of 

the system’s life cycle, and development and procurement strategy (see e.g. Farbey et al., 1992; Hochstrasser, 1990).

As a result of their study on IS evaluation methods, Peffers and Saarinen (2002) divided evaluation criteria into five broad categories as follows: Strategic value; Profitability; Risk; Successful Development and Procurement; and Successful Use and Operations. The above categories might be seen as universal for evaluation in any particular case. Moreover, Irani and Love (2002) presented a comprehensive frame of reference for ex-ante IS investment evaluation. However, the need for a better understanding of in-context IS evaluation still exists.

 

This paper aims to provide an instrument for understanding IS evaluation in its broader context. The instrument is expected to be of value to both researchers and practitioners. In the next section, a holistic framework on IS evaluation is presented. Then the empirical research methodology is described and the presented framework is applied in a case analysis. Finally, the paper concludes with discussions and

conclusions.

2. A holistic framework for analysing IS evaluation in context

The outset situation of the IS investment project consists of the organisational norms and values, project specific contextual factors and the resources given to the project. The actual outcomes of the IS investment project are produced in conjunction with the business development process, the IS development and

procurement processes. The outcomes of the IS project are defined by the success of the system with respect to the investment perspective, the success of the IS project implementation and the success of the desired IS functionality. The basic idea in our analytical framework, presented in Figure 1, is the inclusion and integration of the IS evaluation process into business development and IS development processes. The evaluation

categories defined by Peffers and Saarinen (2002) are suggested to be applied in all IS projects, and in projects with great uncertainty they should be applied frequently, to iteratively

assess the system investment throughout its lifecycle. Furthermore, the IS evaluation process should also adapt to the possible changes in the assumptions that the IS investment is based on, thus in our conceptual framework there is a two way relationship between the IS evaluation process and, business development and IS development processes. The components of the framework are discussed in more details.

2.1 Outset situation

 

2.1.1 Organisational norms and values

The investment characteristics and the organisational environment affect the way in which the evaluation is conducted (Huerta and Sánchez, 1999). Organisations operate and survive through organisationally accepted rules that are justified by goals or a hierarchical goal system. Within organisations, there are individual goals, objectives, desires, wishes, intentions, etc, as well as organisational goals, objectives, missions, etc. (Kivijärvi, 2004). As pointed out by Hallikainen et al. (2002), any strategic investment process employs individual and organisational values and preferences, goals and objectives as an input. At best, evaluation would help the

organisation to understand its processes, problems and opportunities, thus facilitating organisational learning (Barrow and Mayhew, 2000).

2.1.2 Project contingencies

An information system can, on the one hand, be a small application supporting only one single activity, but on the other hand, it can be a wider system supporting the whole company, or it can even be an inter-organisational system. There is one additional type of information system that deserves special attention, namely infrastructure investments. Infrastructure investments are of high importance because they create the platform on which future applications can be built (see e.g. Dos Santos, 1991). Moreover, why the information

system is actually built, depends on several factors. In some situations a company may be forced to build a new information system, e.g. because of legislation changes. Additionally, the senior management may perceive that the system needs to be built, for example, to support a business strategy. Finally, the arguments for building the system can be from the expected and clear quantitative or qualitative benefits from the

investment perspective.                       

The nature of the investment varies according to the novelty of the system. An investment can deal with improving an existing system, replacing an old system or developing an entirely new system. The nature of the investment differs according to how common this type of system is in the field of industry where the company operates (see e.g. Saarinen and Vepsalainen, 1994). For example, investment in a routine system is different from an investment in an innovative system.

2.1.3 IS project resources

Both the material and the immaterial resources are crucial while developing information systems. The integrating role of evaluation includes detecting possible problems and as a result of evaluation it may be noticed, for example, that the project needs more system development resources.

2.2 Business development process

As information technology can make alternative operational designs possible, it in many cases lays a central role when developing the company's business strategy. Furthermore, IT enables new kinds of flexible inter-organisational arrangements (Venkatraman, 1994). Moreover, information technology can support the development of new business, or new products and services. Thus, IS projects are often connected to larger strategic business development programs and the role of IS evaluation would be to ensure that the IS project could deliver the required technological capabilities for achieving the strategic business objectives. The degree that an IS project is involved in business development can range from a system that supports the current business strategy to a system that creates competitive advantages and new business opportunities to the company. An information system investment is in any cases an important part of a business process re-egineering project. The actual aim of the system investment would be cutting costs, improving products or services, or serving a certain customer group better.

2.3 IS development process

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differences

What is the differences between IT and IF ?

What is IF?

E-government for Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities

E-government for Uganda: Challenges and Opportunities

Narcis T. Rwangoga and Asiime Patience Baryayetunga

http://cit.mak.ac.ug/iccir/downloads/SREC_07/Narcis%20T.%20Rwangoga%20and%20Asiime%20Patience%20Baryayetunga_07.pdf

The government of Uganda drew an e-government strategy aimed at changing the design operation and culture of the public sector to better respond to the needs of Ugandans. Some flagship programmes were included in the strategy as an opportunity for the Uganda Government to consolidate the position of ICTs in the country. These flagship programmes have been ongoing for long and according to survey reports, some of the programmes have only partially succeeded. Others are reported to have totally failed. This paper looks at what these programmes are and through interaction with personnel in the institutions concerned with the programmes and reviews of documented reports, discusses the underlying challenges faced by ICT initiatives in Uganda. Recommendations that can assist planners when designing ICT programmes are presented. 

These recommendations are aimed at improving the design of ICT programmes to minimize programme risks. In conclusion, we highlight one of the check tools used in ICT project planning that can be used to identify key factors that

e-government project planners must address if ICT projects are to succeed. 

1. Introduction

According to Bretschneider S. (1990)[1], there is insufficient evidence to suggest a direct link between ICTs and development. Danziger, J. N. &. Kraemer, K. L (2006) [2] argue that recent studies have found a positive correlation between investment in ICTs and economic growth in developed countries, but evidence for developing countries is not as extensive. However, it is emerging that ICTs in Uganda have been identified as a major tool for achieving socio-economic development by the Government of Uganda. In order for the government to implement the long term national development programmes timely, relevant information must be available at all levels of implementation. However, despite the government’s

will and mandate towards advancement of ICTs growth in the country, there are many limiting factors within the environment that have slowed realizations of the good intentions. For instance, lack of adequate funding to invest in ICTs, poor network infrastructure, and unaffordable ICT services for the citizens are

among the limitations often cited. This study was conceived in part to look at the existing ICT initiatives in Uganda with a view of identifying areas that require special attention. The paper was prepared mainly from document analysis and the researchers’ experience with ICT projects in Uganda. The Internet was also used

to search for current trends of implementation of ICT projects in governments. There were meetings held with officials of the Ministry of Finance, Planning, government for Uganda Advances in System s Modelling and ICT Applicationsand Economic Development; the Office of the President; the Ministry of Local Government; and the Ministry of Works, Housing, and Communications with a view of understanding their current ICT initiatives in the country and how they are progressing. 

This study was undertaken during 2006 and some of the data and the overall environment regarding the state of ICT in Uganda have undergone substantial changes. We have endeavored to explain where the ICT environment has changed since the last time of review earlier in 2006. Some changes are very positive an demonstrate how the Government of Uganda is committed to fully integrate ICT within all government processes. One such a development is the creation of the Ministry of ICT as a single face for ICT initiatives in Uganda. This is an opportunity for an environment that can be exploited to have the value of ICT enhance service delivery and policy formulation for more efficient citizen services and improved economic development in the country.

Before embarking on a broad strategy for implementing E-government, it is important to identify common practices and their trends in the existing ICT projects. Such trends will assist in identifying critical shortfalls that affect the successful implementation of E-government programmes. Further, this paper is intended to contribute towards the improvement of the processes and procedures employed in government bodies to implement ICT projects, collaborating in theeffort to make an impact on service delivery to the citizens. The results of this research will help project planners and policy formulators define the areas into which they are supposed put more or less effort in a coordinated manner. This will allow them to implement a more productive work strategy whilst trekking on a steady path towards attaining the defined goals. This paper is organized as follows:

Section 1 is the introduction. Section 2 presents the approach used in the study. Section 3 describes aspects related to E-government projects implementation aspects. Section 4 presents and analyses the results  obtained in field research. Section presents the main conclusions from this research and recommendations that can be adopted to improve project performance in government programmes.

 

2. Approach of the study

We reviewed literature from several documents related to E-government projects in Uganda. These include the Uganda E-Government Strategy (March 2004)[3], Uganda e-Readiness Assessment (March 2004),[4] The National ICT Policy for Uganda Implementation Framework Draft Final Report (February 2005) [5] and East African Community Regional E-Government Framework (Draft) December 2005.[6] We also reviewed literature on E-government from other countries to identify any best practices that are applicable in Uganda. From the documents reviewed, we focused on identifying evidence to confirm that the Government of Uganda is committed to a unified, integrated, and comprehensive ICT program to enable Government services to be delivered more efficiently and effectively to every segment of society. We also looked at sample projects that have already been undertaken in a sample of ministries with a focus on identifying challenges and experiences from these flagship projects. Special attention was paid to e-government related projects based on the e-government strategic plan for the country. 

 

 

3. E-government and ICT Projects

3.1. Overview

Driven by the belief that e-government is one of the key motors for development, governments are taking wide-ranging initiatives to rapidly create knowledge-based economic structures and information societies comprising networks of individuals, firms and countries interlinked electronically through webs of informational relationships. According to Datanet et al (1987) [7], the importance of expanding the access of developing countries to information and communication technologies (ICTs) has been recognized by governments and international agencies with increasing consensus that ICT-related technology should be regarded as a strategic national infrastructure. Development, in contemporary times, is characterized by various dimensions, including ICTs. A functional E-government structure is comprised of an ICT infrastructure, different computer applications, and knowledge workers who form the basis of new information societies. While the ICT infrastructure is a visible starting point, it is often very expensive to install but at the same time the easiest to see and verify. When it comes to government programmes, it is more complex to stimulate processes through which individuals, organizations, communities and countries create capacities to use information effectively in their local contexts and for their needs. With the vision to 

offer better services to the citizens and business communities,

the government of Uganda formulated the e-government strategy in 2004. This followed many years of government efforts to put e-government in practice through formulation of policies and structures to support its implementation. Literature available shows that Uganda received substantial support from donor agencies in the area of ICT for development. This has translated into a myriad ICT projects being  implemented in various sectors of Ugandan society, most notably in rural infrastructure, education, livelihoods and health. The motivation for conducting this study has been accelerated by the need to establish the where Uganda as a country has reached on the path to full implementation of E-government, identify any challenges and where possible, focus on identifying strategies to handle the

challenges. 

There are indications that the Government of Uganda has recognized the critical importance of ICT in national development, and has started a policy framework to start implementing these technologies throughout the country. Several policies, statutes, and other initiatives have been undertaken toward this goal. The most recent of these include: (i) A National ICT Policy was approved in 2003 with the

aim of promoting the development of ICT infrastructure in the country, with the ministry of Works Housing, and Communications as the primary coordinated agency within the Government; (ii) A Draft broadcasting policy is in place; (iii) The Uganda Communication Policy; (iv) The new Communications Policy (Draft) seeks to connect all schools, sub-counties, urban centers, health centers and public libraries by 2010; (v) The Government is promoting Public-Private Partnerships to build the requisite backbone infrastructure. Despite the above structure, individual Ministries have continued to adopt ICT initiatives based on internal factors and available opportunities for funding on an ad hoc, decentralized basis. As a result, ICT development within the Government remains more integrated at the national policy level, than it does with respect to translating that policy to a harmonized ICT implementation and operational guidelines across all Ministries.

 

3.2. ICT Programs in Selected Ministries

The following summaries highlight the major findings based on interview meetings and documentary reviews. The highlight are presented in Table 1, first identifying the ministry concerned, description of its responsibilities, current and planned ICT Programs and comments on ICT Program Implementation. In the

commentary section, we highlight the causes of any failure so far experienced within the identified

 

Key findings

In general, the development and integration of ICT within the Government is uneven, with the lack of adequate resources to dedicate to ICT programs. Therefore, programs that enlist international donor organizations have been the primary catalyst for ICT penetration into the Government sector. Some ministries i.e. Finance, have substantial electronic records processing, databases and information retrieval systems, internal LANs and external networking to other Ministries.The World Bank provided much of the funding for these initiatives. Many other Ministries are still working to establish internal networking,

requires a centralized and coordinated organizational structure to ensure the most

rational and cost-effective utilization of scarce resources and fully standardized and

inter-operable systems throughout the Government. With the creation of a Ministry

of ICT, there is anticipation that this challenge will be addressed

.

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eGovernment for Development

Success and Failure in eGovernment Projects

Case Details

Source: http://www.egov4dev.org/success/case/misuniv.shtml
Author Data Sources/Role : Direct Role.
Outcome : Largely Unsuccessful. Reform : eAdministration (Managing Process Performance).
Sector : Social Services (Education and Training).
Region : West Africa. Start Date : 1993. Submission Date : November 2002

The "eGovernment for Development Information Exchange" project is coordinated by the University of Manchester's Institute for Development Policy and Management . The project was initially funded and managed by the Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation as part of the UK Department for International Development 's "Building Digital Opportunities" programme.

Last updated on 19 October, 2008.
Please contact richard.heeks@manchester.ac.uk with comments and suggestions.

 

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Success/Failure Case Study No.25

Challenges to Management Information Systems in Nigerian Universities

Case Study Author

Anonymous

 

Application

This was a management information system (MIS) to assist with management of the university sector in Nigeria. The MIS was originally planned to run on a PC using dBase software, with a PC placed in the administrative sections of every Nigerian university, and further PCs at the federal-level Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC).

 

Application Description

The application was supposed to perform the following functions:

• to act as the central point for collection of data from individual Nigerian universities on students and staff, building a comprehensive statistical database;
• to have that data utilised by the Nigerian Universities Commission and federal Ministry of Education for the purpose of planning and development of infrastructure, and for the production of statistics such as student registrations, staff/student ratios, gender and geographical distributions; and
• to provide support to individual universities for the purpose of processing examination results and transcripts.

 

Application Purpose

The purpose behind introduction of this application was to address difficulties that NUC had experienced for many years in collation and output of student and staff data, and that universities had experienced in the processing of examination results and transcripts.

 

Stakeholders

Managers in the Nigerian Universities Commission management are key intended users of the outputs from the MIS, for example requiring total student enrolment for planning purposes. Managers and administrators in individual universities also need reliable data on staff and students to help plan issues of infrastructure development and human resource planning. The federal Ministry of Education has a stake, needing data to plan funding of the various universities. Students at each university are the final stakeholders, since they wish their exam results and transcripts to be processed.

 

Impact: Costs and Benefits

The project began in 1993 and significant sums have been invested: at least US$1.4million, much of which was spent on contracts for system programmers. However, the project has still not been able to achieve the objectives that were set, leading it to be seen as a white elephant and a waste of money. No university has been able to generate either transcripts or correct enrolment data from the system, and the NUC has stopped the funding of the project in a number of universities. Disbursement of funds from the Federal Ministry of Education to universities is inadequate and also mis-matched to needs because reliable data is not available. Statistics still have to be generated manually, which is an inaccurate and time-consuming process, and a cause of frustration and stress amongst those staff involved. Continuing delays in the processing of transcripts have led many students to lose their chance of admission to further education.

 

Evaluation: Failure or Success?

This project has been largely unsuccessful, considering its long duration and the level of achievements recorded.

 

Enablers/Critical Success Factors

1. Central support . The project was supported by the Federal Government, which saw the project as a valuable means to collect accurate data for planning purposes, and by the NUC's MIS Unit, which was enthusiastic about the potential role of ICTs.
2. Adequate funding . Because of central support for the project, adequate funding for the hardware and software was provided from the start.

 

Constraints/Critical Failure Factors

1. Blocks on feedback . Feedback on the project and its design given by the individual universities was not well-used by the project coordinating unit within the Nigerian Universities Commission.
2. Changing political context . During the many years of the project, Nigeria underwent a series of changes in political leadership, which was mirrored by a lack of continuity within the government policy-making body overseeing the use of data and ICTs in the university system.
3. Resistance . There was resistance to the project and to new ways of working within the individual universities and other parts of the system.

 

Recommendations

1. Training/awareness-raising . There needs to be a continuous focus on raising the awareness, understanding and skills of those involved in e-government projects. This must include promotion of the benefits of the projects.
2. Good project management . Projects can be left to drift unless they are well managed. This must include continuous monitoring, and continuous action to improve the project on the basis of that monitoring.
3. Dealing with politics . Some way must be found to deal with the politics, sentiment and self-interest that inevitably forms part of e-government projects.

 

Further Information

n/a

Management Information System: Issues and challenges

Management Information System: Issues and challenges 

Source: http://www.sa-dhan.net/adls/microfinance/mis/misissueschallenges.pdf

 

1.0 Introduction

Management Information System (MIS) can be defined ascollecting and processing of raw data into useful information and its dissemination to the user in the required format. It consists of information, which impacts managements to feel the pulse of the organization and take decisions accordingly. In fact a full MIS consistsof all the systems that the institution uses too generate the information that guide management’s decisions andactions. 

Microfinance Institutions (MFI’S), over the past fewyears, have been paying increasing attention to information systems. They are increasingly realizing that information lies at the very heart of microfinance. The practitioners as well as donors have become aware of the vital need for formal and informal financialinstitutions to manage large amounts of data. As a result, there is a massive drive to improve the effective

understanding and use of these data. Needless to say that it is no possible to collect and collate large volumesof data without adopting new technology. As a result the MFIs are watching the developments in informationtechnology very closely. 

1.1 Problem in Developing MIS

Despite the availability of technology today there is a problem in developing a good and problem free MIS software for the MFIs. The diverse nature of microfinance creates an intriguing complexity for softwareapplication development. Some of the complexities in developing a single or a small number of software to meet the needs of the MFIs are discussed below.

ƒ 

Many Institutional Models: 

The organizational forms is a function of the specific of social , political, economics , regulatory and legal environments throughout the world. There are a variety of organizational forms that are assumed by the MFIs for carrying on their work. The MFIs can be in the form of credit union, cooperatives, Non governmental Organizations (NGO) and even banks. All have their own varied type of requirement for MIS and its automation.

ƒ

Different Lending Methodologies:

MFIs have vastly different lending methodologies across the globe and even within the same country. Some MFIs follow individual lending some follow village banking methodology and yet others may be following solidarity group lending . In Indian for example some MFIs

follow the e Grameen Model as per the example of the Grameen Bank, Bangladesh while other follow Self Help Group Model as propagated by the institutions like National Bank for Agriculture and Rural development (NABARD)

ƒ 

Methodology on Interest Payment: 

The practices for calculating interest and the periodicity for its payment vary according to the product and organisation.

These variations can occur even within the same organisation depending on the product and the area of operation.

ƒ 

Other varied requirements: 

Tthere are variations in terms of the currencies languages and reporting requirements of the MFIs.

1.2 Inference

All these wide variations complicate the development of software that can be picked off the shelf and implemented in most of the MFIs. It creates great burden on software companies creating quality application that is affordable and meets all the requirements of the MFIs. In fact this is the major problem faced by those responsible for providing automation in the industry. The need of technology cannot be overstated but the complexity and diversity forces one to take a hand look at the following:

• What is the role of MIS in improving the sustainability of MFIs?
• What are the basic components of sound microfinance packages for MFIs?
• Why are there so few solutions available?
•  
•  

 

 

2.0 Role of MIS

2.1 Sustainability

Let us look at what does the MIS do for the sustainability of MFIs? The answer is Nothing., MIS will not do much for the sustainability of microfinance if institutions ignore good business practices. The following are some of the widely stipulated best business practices :

• Focus on profitability
• ƒQuality loans
• ƒProvision for loan loss reserve
• ƒCommunity accepted and appropriate accounting procedures
• ƒGathering and reporting of accurate and timely information.

 

These good business practices should be in place before any MFI even thinks about MIS software. Without quality business practices. MIS will do little if anything to sustain these institutions. In fact, MIS can complicable the situation by creating a financial drain and propagating but allow you to do bad business more efficiently. 

If, however, the MFIs follow good business practices, MIS will go a long way in sustaining these institutions. Some examples of what MIS can do for good MFIs are:

• Increased productivity and efficiency
• ƒLower transaction cost per loan
• ƒGreater outreach in rural and urban areas
• ƒFaster delivery of more products and services
• ƒMore accurate and timely reporting
• ƒBetter decision making

2.2 Uses of MIS

ƒ

Since it can be programmed to follow business rules uniformly, MIS reinforces discipline in accounting

and portfolio tracking.

ƒ

Computers can link all data pertaining to a customer or customer group hence MIS can provide a

consolidated view of each customer or group.

ƒ

MIS allow for single entry of data that can then be used by many people. Data once entered can be accessed, manipulated and used by all users. Thus 

• MIS reduces duplication of effort and increases speed of work.
• ƒMIS integrates information and process.
• ƒMIS supports workflow and procedures for users.
• ƒMIS can be ported to remote areas via laptop or palm technology.
• ƒMIS application can be customized or enhanced to support new products and institutional growth. 

3.0 Components of a Good MIS Solution 

 The catch is that most MIS solutions provide only some of the functionality and capabilities needed for sustainability and outreach.

This can be better understood by knowing the components of a good MIS solution. They can be organized under the following categories:

ƒ

• Functionally and Expandability
• Flexibility
• ƒUsability
• ƒReporting
• Standards and Compliance
• ƒTechnical Specification and Correctness

The challenge of Information Management

The challenge of information management

Tallinn University, Estonia.

http://www.tlu.ee/~priitp/IM_31/IM_31_Synopsis.htm

26 October 2006 03:00:23

Contents

Goals of information management

Information management problems

Information advantage

What is possible?

Powerful images and ideal states

Information management strategies

Information management concepts

Information management techniques

Cases and examples

The application of theoretical ideas

Goals of information management

1. Supply work, business and consumption processes with information — This is the basic goal: work cannot be done without required information.

2. Improve and speed up business, work and consumption processes through information use and efficient information processing — Information is not only one of the inputs to the work process. By improving information supply and its processing, the whole process usually can be made more efficient.

3. Create and maintain competitive advantage through new, IT-based work and business processes — Often, information technologies allow reorganization of work in completely new ways, and creation of totally new businesses.

4. Efficient use of organization’s information assets — While previous goals come from activity (process), this goal statement invites to think about organization’s information not as some side-product of activity, but as the central resource. Information, not activity may be the „real thing”.

5. Reduce unnecessary complexity of information processing systems; protect against information overload.

Information management problems

1. Situations where meeting the information need, or information processing -- is non-trivial and requires application of specialized skills, resources and system development.

2. Situations where present information management in organization does not satisfy the needs.

Information advantage

In competitive environment, the advantage that a party acquires through possession of more or better information. Related concepts:

◦ Information delta – difference in information between competing parties.

◦ Information superiority, information dominance – In competitive situation, tactical dominance of a party through better information and more capable information systems.

What is possible?

Some research has indicated that outstanding information management can result in organization’s profitability 20-40% above the average. Modern technology is capable:

◦ in Data Acquisition – practically every process can be traced and informational record created.

◦ in Data Storage – text: no limits to what can be stored. Graphical information: capabilities expand very rapidly.

◦ in Access to Data – it is possible to create fast, practically immediate access to practically all data.

◦ in Data transfer – speed satisfies most requirements.

◦ in Automation – many operations of human work can be replaced by computer operation, or improved significantly through computer support.

What is not possible? (What information management will not do?)

◦  Content creation – an IT solution itself does not generate meaning.

◦  Complete information management – new-ness and certain surprise are essential elements of information. Therefore, a comprehensive information management system – that eliminates all risks and surprises – is not possible.

◦  Solving non-informational problems – IT solution can affect positively yet will not solve problems of work organization, social problems, psychological problems, problems of education, etc. Therefore, the Science of Information Management will not make Management, Business Strategy, Social Theory, Psychology and other sciences  unnecessary.

Powerful images and ideal states

Ideal state — a state of system or situation, real or imagined, where one or several useful properties have been maximized (pushed into theoretically maximal value).

◦ Information at your fingertips — a system, where all useful information has been organized into structures that allow immediate access. (The property absolutized: search time.)

◦ Complete information — a situation where decision maker can use all information that is relevant to the decision. (The property absolutized: quantity of information.)

◦ Real-time — interaction (information exchange) between user and the information system, or between information system and its environment where system’s response is practically immediate. (The property absolutized: response time.)

◦ Information at the point of need — the worker or operator is given at each moment exactly the information required by the work process. (The properties absolutized: information relevance, search time.)

◦ Anytime, anywhere — access to information at any time, from any location, achived by IT infrastructure and information systems. Related terms: „24-7”, „365-24-7” —system uptime 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year.

◦ 99,95% — system uptime.

◦ Seamless integration — Connecting two or more IT systems with no problems of compatibility.

◦ Fully integrated enterprise — An organization which has succeeded in connecting all its IT and information systems into one integrated system (or, a system of systems).

◦ Company's nervous system — An image used by Bill Gates to conceptualize IT and information systems in an organization.

◦ Information society — a society that produces most of its economic value in form of information products and services, as opposed to exploitation of natural resources, agricultural and hard goods production.

Information management strategies

We can see extremely wide spectrum of information management problems in practice. These problems and information needs are solved and managed in very different ways. To enumerate and discuss all possible approaches is impossible. Still, we can distinguish a number of broad, general directions and approaches toward solution of informational problems. In particular the following strategies are very common, and certainly belong to the most important ones. 

◦  Promoting the understanding of information importance in the organization — This is very important. If people in the organization do not realize the importance od data and information, and what are immediate as well as indirect effects of good and bad information management, then IT will not be used to its full potential.

◦  Improving the organization of existing information — Often, we do not need build a new IT system. Instead, we can take the information at hand and bring it to better shape, using various techniques, some of those are very simple. This strategy can be considered at any time; it can bring quick return at low cost.

◦  „Informatization” of the process — A general strategy of identifying information processing operations in a work process and building IT solutions to supply these operations with information and high quality and low cost. Making processes more information-intensive has become practical necessity in virtually all areas of life today.

◦  Information support to human activity — The same goals as in previous strategy, but a different philosophy. For knowledge work, IT systems should not control the worker, but give him or her support. This strategy provides a variety of tools to the worker who is free to choose and apply them as he or she likes.

◦  Language development (taxonomies and coding systems) — Information processing is an activity; but the activity is maybe not the most critical aspect of it. All information processing takes place in context of language. There are natural, human languages, and many more or less formal, computer languages, including various coding systems. Languages provide the context for information processing. Languages should not be taken as given; language development is an important direction of information management improvement.

◦  Using meta-information — Meta-information is information about information. Usually we limit our thinking to the view that information is a description of the objects in the „real world”. But information itself needs to be described. Introduction and skillful use of meta-information is a promising direction of information management improvement.

◦  Use of templates and patterns — Template (pattern) is a set of structural features of a solution that was found to work in one situation; if extracted and stored, a template or pattern can be used to solve further, similar problems. For example, think of the role of document template in word processing.

◦  Creation of information model — To understand, and possibly control or operate something, a general strategy is to build a model of it. Models can be built on paper, or even made of wood; but computer modelling is superior to these approaches in several respects. Complete, large, elaborate, easily modifiable information models form the core of many important information systems.

◦  System development — Information management problems can be of two types: one-time, or recurrent. Problems can also be simple or complex. To handle complex, recurrent informational problems, the organization has to allocate many different resources (hardware, software, operators, infrastructure). System development is the process of building these resources into assemblies that can be usable over long time and for a range of complex problems.

◦  Process improvement through IT — It is not enough to provide information support to and automate existing work processes. To maintain competitive advantage, organization must continuously seek ways to introduce new, efficient business models and work processes. Information technology has become a very important source and enabling factor of process innovation. There is a lot of new technology available, and organization can certainly find something that fits its profile and makes sense economically as well.

◦  Information design — People today want their information to come in forms that are similar to what they experience in media channels that they use. Information provided by information systems must be not only timely and correct — it must be designed in accordance to aesthetic values and customes of the information user. This places an extra burden to information system designers; a burden that is not fully met today.

◦  Optimal mix of information channels — It is not enough any more to build single systems. Organizations employ a multitude of information systems, IT equipment and media channels. That informational landscape has become complex, and often it is changing so fast, that nobody even has full picture of it. Still, it must be managed, somehow.

◦  Standardization and simplification — One strategic way to help untangle the informational problems is to actively use standardization of information system elements. Organization must follow industry-level standarization; it must also conduct standardization at its own. Without the use of standards and deliberate simplification of information management processes, system building will constrain not aid the business.

◦  Intelligent use of Low Technology — Often, new technology is used where „low” technology works better. While many organizations are hypnotized by the promises of the latest technologies, a more mindful organization can often create value (and advantage) by clever use of less simple technology. 

Information management concepts

Confidence in information management is built mainly by study through practice. One cannot claim competence without trying hand in system development, programming, information architecture, information design, or other disciplines of the information management group of sciences.  A certain conceptual apparatus is still needed – in order to get an overview, to build “a big picture”, and to help fill in the places where knowledge is insufficient. We have tried to put together a basic set of information management concepts. It is organized in form of short articles. Access to the articles is provided through a conceptual outline and through an index.

  

Information management techniques

Very many techniques exist that can help solve information management problems. These are best studied in practice sessions in infomation management courses.

Cases and examples

Information management is important for organizations. Information management is tighly related to business processes and competitive advantage of the company. Therefore, information about company’s information systems and informational capabilities is usually considered confidential. Information about organization’s on-going IT projects, IT strategies and lessons learned from completed projects is also an important strategic asset. Information on these matters can still be acquired, from various sources; yet, its potentially fragmentary and biased nature must always be taken into accont.

The application of theoretical ideas

Information work is characterized by its relative idiosynchrasy. A manual worker maybe can be equipped by a shovel of standard shape and measurements. But requirements of knowledge workers as to their informational tools and work environment differ widely. It may sound counter-intuitive, but people’s information needs and information behavior are highly variable.

Therefore, developers and educators should research through, develop and articulate a spectrum of ideas and solution tools that may be applied to a spectrum of information management problems.

Then, practitioners can choose, try and use specific ideas and techniques for their specific needs.